![]() Similarly, the mitochondrial gene encoding cytochrome b is both sufficiently conserved and sufficiently diverse to allow amplification and identification from across the vertebrates (Zardoya and Meyer 1996 Baharum and Nurdalia 2012). The 28S region of the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene possesses both sufficiently conserved regions to allow a single primer pair to amplify DNA from a wide range of species and sufficient diversity to enable species-level identification (Bruns and others 1991 Sonnenberg and others 2007). Many PCR primers are available to amplify conserved regions of DNA. Downstream techniques include gel electrophoresis, various fingerprinting techniques, and gene sequencing. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) provides the substrate, in the form of billions of copies of a gene or DNA region of interest, for numerous biochemistry and molecular biology techniques. Processed fish products, such as fish sticks, nuggets, and patties, are particularly susceptible to economic adulteration, as the end product has been minced, reshaped, and frequently breaded, obscuring any morphological features of the original fish (Pepe and others 2005 Everstine and others 2013). Foods commonly subjected to economic adulteration include honey (which may be replaced, in part or whole, by corn syrup or other sweeteners Everstine and others 2013), oils (in which premium oils, such as extra virgin olive oil, may be blended with or replaced by lower grade oils Everstine and others 2013), and seafood. In economic adulteration, superior or more expensive ingredients are fraudulently replaced by less expensive ones without the consumers’ awareness (Everstine and others 2013). Food fraud occurs when food is somehow misrepresented to customers and consumers, and encompasses a variety of activities, including adulteration.
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